Electric arc furnace

We are currently carrying out research to develop a mathematical model for the electric arc furnace. The model is developed in collaboration with international research institutes and steelmakers, and is intended for online use. On the experimental side, we are studying the use of biochar for slag foaming, melting of iron-bearing raw materials (scrap, DRI, and HBI), and the modification of DRI-based EAF slags.

Highlights

• An EAF process model for carbon steelmaking and stainless steelmaking.
• First detailed characterisation of H-DRI-based EAF slags.
• Melting experiments using a laboratory-scale EAF.

Selected publications

• A. Agnihotri, M. Kendall, P. Sulasalmi, and V.-V. Visuri, “Physics-Aware Dynamic Modeling of Semi-Continuous EAF Operation: Temperature, Oxygen Efficiency, and Slag Evolution,” Ironmaking and Steelmaking, forthcoming.
• M. Hauru, H. Pauna, T. Kokkonen, P. Cavaliere, P. Sulasalmi, and V.-V. Visuri, “Preliminary Results on the Melting of Individual Hydrogen Direct Reduced Iron Pellets in a Laboratory-Scale Electric Arc Furnace,” Proceedings of the 14th European Electric Steelmaking Conference, Associazione Italiana di Metallurgia, Milan, Italy, pp. 391–399, 2026
• A. Agnihotri, P. Sulasalmi, P. Cavaliere, and V.-V. Visuri, “Modeling the Thermal Properties of Hydrogen‐Based Direct Reduced Iron Using Computational Thermodynamics and Machine Learning,” Steel Research International, vol. 97, no, 7, pp. 3851–3869, 2026.
  View publication
• S. Rytky, E. Hoikkaniemi, A. Koskela, P. Sulasalmi, T. Fabritius, and V.-V. Visuri, “Biochar as a Slag Foaming Agent in Simulated EAF Conditions: Effect of Fixed-C content of Biochar and Basicity of Slag,” Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, vol. 57, no. 2, pp. 2852–2865, 2026
  View publication
• I. Mäkelä, M. Aula, and V.-V. Visuri, “A Mathematical Model for Metal–Slag Reactions in the Electric Arc Furnace in Stainless Steelmaking,” Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, vol. 57, no. 2, pp. 1237–1258, 2026
  View publication
• V.-V. Visuri and T. Echterhof, “Electric Arc Furnace Steelmaking,” Metals, vol. 15, no. 12, 2025. 1285
  View publication
• A. Agnihotri, P. Sulasalmi, and V.-V. Visuri, “Radiative Heat Transfer and Pellet Melt/bathing in a Lab-Scale EAF Simulator with HDRI: Axisymmetric Enclosure Modeling and Arc Emission Analysis,” Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on the Science and Technology of Ironmaking and Steelmaking (G. S. Gupta, A. Dash, S. Subramanian, and M. P. L. Rao, eds.), Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India, pp. 348–353, 2025
• A. Agnihotri, P. Sulasalmi, and V.-V. Visuri, “Modeling the thermal properties of H-DRI during melting in an electric arc furnace,” Journal of Physics: Conference Series, vol. 1050, 2025. 012008
  View publication
• E.-P. Heikkinen, P. Sulasalmi, V.-V. Visuri, S. Ollila, and J. Lilja, “Mass and energy based modelling of EAF steelmaking scenarios using scrap and hydrogen reduced DRI as raw materials,” Journal of Physics: Conference Series, vol. 1050, 2025. 012006
  View publication
• R. Kallio, M. Cantaluppi, J. Louhisalmi, and V.-V. Visuri, “Mineralogical characteristics of fossil-free steel slags,” Minerals Engineering, vol. 230, 2025. 109396
  View publication
• I. Mäkelä, V.-V. Visuri, M. Aula, and T. Echterhof, “Coupled dynamic modelling of scrap melting and gas phase reactions in the EAF process", IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, vol. 1039, 2024. 012005
  View publication
• E. Hoikkaniemi, P. Sulasalmi, V.-V. Visuri, and T. Fabritius, “Biochar as a slag foaming agent in EAF – A novel experimental setup,” IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, vol. 1039, 2024. 012010
  View publication
• S. Jawahery, V.-V. Visuri, S. O. Wasbø, A. Hammervold, N. Hyttinen, and M. Schlautmann, "Thermophysical Model of Electric Arc Furnace for Online Optimization and Control", Metals, vol. 11, no. 10, 2021. 1587
  View publication
• V.-V. Visuri, M. Aula, A. Ringel, and T. Fabritius, "Towards dynamic modeling of the EAF process", Proceedings of the 12th European Electric Steelmaking Conference, Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining, Sheffield, United Kingdom, pp. 351–359, 2021.
  View publication
• T. Hay, V.-V. Visuri, M. Aula, and T. Echterhof, "A Review of Mathematical Process Models for the Electric Arc Furnace Process", Steel Research International, vol. 92, no. 3, article 2000395, 2021.
  View publication
• T. Hay, T. Echterhof, and V.-V. Visuri, "Development of an Electric Arc Furnace Simulator Based on a Comprehensive Dynamic Process Model", Processes, vol. 7, no. 11, 2019. 852
  View publication
• T. Veijola, M. Aula, N. Hyttinen, V.-V. Visuri, M. Jokinen, and T. Fabritius, "Modifying the EAF voltage tap profile for lower electrode tip consumption and increased energy efficiency", Proceedings of the 4th European Steel Technology and Application Days, Düsseldorf, Germany, Stahlinstitut VDEh, 2019.
  View publication